Biography of Primo Levi: Vanadium

Biography of Primo Levi: Vanadium ‘Vanadium’ – The Periodic Table (Primo Levi) Annerita Ng Primo Levi was a Jewish chemist and author born in Italy. The majority of his writings revolved around his experience surviving the Holocaust of World War II, some with a heavy subtext of chemistry. One of his books entitled ‘The Periodic Table’ is a memoir of his life collated in 21 chapters, each of which is given the title of an element that is somehow woven intrinsically into the story. In chapter 20, called ‘Vanadium’, Levi does a seamless job of tying in the chemistry he learns with past personal experiences that plague his mind. In 1941, after Italy had entered World War II as an ally of Germany, Levi accepted a job at a mine in which he was to extract nickel to aid the production of weaponry for the Germans2. He then worked in Milan with a former acquaintance from university, before returning to Turin in 1943. He became involved with an Italian partisan group when he returned to Turin after Italy became occupied by the Germans. Levi was captured and sent to a transit camp before being deported to a Monowitz-Auschwitz camp. The Buna Werke plant nearby the camp, run by German chemical industry corporation I.G. Farben, focused on the production of synthetic rubber and made use of slave labour from the concentration camp. Thanks to his professional abilities, Levi secured a position in the Buna Werke laboratory, which ultimately led to his survival in the camp. He was freed in 1945, eleven months after he was deported to the concentration camp. He began working different chemistry related jobs not long after his liberation and eventually obtained a job in a paint business as a chemist and technical director2. It was in this job that Levi based his short story ‘Vanadium’ from his book ‘The Periodic Table’. While working for the company a shipment of resin for varnishes is received, which Levi then learns does not dry properly when mixed with the required chemical agent. He then discovered that the supplier is a descendant of I.G. Farben, who operated the Buna Werke plant during his stay at the concentration camp. After a series of letters sent to their representative, Levi realizes that the representative, Doctor Muller, was an acquaintance of his from the Buna Werke laboratory. This connection was set off after a misspelling of the name of a chemical, the same word which Muller often mispronounced while working at the Burna Werke laboratory. Memories of his experience working in the laboratory were triggered. Levi explains that Muller, along with other men, would often visit the laboratory he worked at to give himself and two other prisoners strict instructions. Muller only spoke to him a few times, but during one of those times he had continuously mispronounced ‘naphthenate’ as ‘naptenate’. Levi also remembered Muller giving him permission to shave twice a week (as opposed to the rule of prisoners shaving once a week), and also provided him with a pair of leather shoes. He also noted that Muller was rather ignorant to the events occurring at the concentration camp nearby the laboratory, as he asked Levi why he looked so anxious working at the factory. As Levi sent letters to Muller regarding the flawed shipment, he had also sent him a private letter in order to confirm if he was the same Muller he met at the Buna Werke Laboratory. While he waited for Muller’s confirmation he begun testing the instructions given to him in order to cure the shipment of resin. Levi had been directed by Muller to add 0.1% of vanadium naphthenate to the resin in order for it to dry properly. Vanadium naphthenate acts to accelerate the drying process of the resin3,4. It is able to protect the inner material and keep it undamaged from oxidation by forming oxide layers. This occurs as the hydrocarbon ring of the vanadium compound reacts with the oxygen in air3. He discovered that the Italian version of the vanadium naphthenate was not as effective as the German kind, and accordingly he requested for a shipment of German naphthenate. Muller had replied to his private letter a while later, confirming that he was the ‘Muller of Buna’ and requested to meet with Levi in order to rise above the past between them. Levi, however, was not so keen for this meeting, stating that he had no past that needed resolving. He avoided this topic altogether and, instead, Muller spoke of their ‘friendship’ as they worked together in the laboratory of the camp. Levi recalled no friendship between the two men, but realised that the other had saved his life by selecting him in to work at the laboratory. He assumed that Muller had perchance fabricated a convenient past for himself. In a sense, the variable effectiveness of the Italian and German versions of the vanadium naphthenate can be associated with the different versions of Levi and Muller’s memories of the camp. A few days later, Levi had received a letter from the supplier apologising for the inconvenience he, and the company he worked for, had suffered. However from this disruption they had realised it would be more appropriate and convenient if they themselves integrated the vanadium naphthenate into the resin before delivering them. Here, we see the success that prevails from the deductive processes of chemists and the elements of small-scale industrial chemistry. After the problem was encountered with the shipment of resin, Levi’s immediate action was to contact the source/supplier. The buyer-supplier connection is necessary for the industrial chemistry department, especially in when issues arise. These connections can be somewhat difficult when the buyer and supplier are located for apart, such as in Levi’s case. He was then given instructions in which he would test the effect of a required chemical and observe and confirm if it was the solution to the problem. In other words, trials were to be conducted to narrow down the cause of the issue. In this instance, materials monitoring is helpful for quality control and to review the materials and the processes they endure. In Levi’s case, a positive outcome was reached as the supplying company recognised a more convenient route to take with th eir resin product in order to avoid future issues. At first, Levi refused to forgive Muller despite his high respect for the man. He could not fathom the idea of meeting Muller with open arms after all he had to suffer through. He did not hate Muller, rather he harboured an abhorrence toward the Germans in general, and assumed Muller a substitute for those who harmed the Jews. But after further contemplation he became sympathetic to Muller’s plight as he tried to clear his conscience of any wrong doing. Levi then began drafting a letter to thank Muller for selecting him and even mentioned a readiness for forgiveness. On the same evening he received a phone call from Muller asking to meet with him in the near future. The language barrier helps prevent him from making his feelings of distaste known. He carelessly agreed to the meeting as he was caught off guard. However, the meeting would not occur as only a week later Levi discovered that Muller has passed away unexpectedly. This chapter provided an insight of the relationship between his chemical career and other aspects of his life, such as his writing career. Chemistry seems to be quintessential to his life. Levi finds a brilliant way of linking his chemical profession to his personal and social experiences, showing that he was deeply invested in his profession. Even in the Auschwitz concentration camp, he couldn’t escape it, and it most probably saved his life. He continued working as a chemical professional after he was freed from Auschwitz despite the obvious psychological trauma he suffered. From this chapter of his book, it is seen that Levi correlates the characteristics of vanadium naphthenate to the important features of his story. And although this unique chapter is mainly about his personal experience and his reflection on the injustices handed to him, it does contain factual information on the chemical it is named after. Levi also provides an understanding of the logical manner in which chemists must think within the industry and the elements involved in the processes of industrial chemistry – proving how communication is key within the world of industrial chemistry. Without a doubt Levi has a very powerful way with words, intertwining his personal tale with scientific principles. References Levi, P., (1986). Vanadium. In: The Periodic Table, 1st ed. Abacus: Sphere Books Ltd, pp.211 223. Patruno, N. (n.d.). Primo Levi: Surviving the Haulocast. [online] Bryn Mawr College. Available at: http://www.brynmawr.edu/italian/holoc/essays/surv_hol.htm [Accessed 12 Dec. 2014]. Chemical Land 21, (n.d.). Vanadyl Naphthenate. [online] Available at: http://www.chemicalland21.com/industrialchem/organic/VANADYL NAPHTHENATE.htm [Accessed 15 Dec. 2014]. Kemi Swedish Chemicals Agency, (n.d.). Metal Naphthenates. [online] Available at: http://apps.kemi.se/flodessok/floden/kemamne_eng/metallnaftenater_eng.htm [Accessed 15 Dec. 2014]. Sumatran Orangutan: Threats and Rehabilitation Strategies Sumatran Orangutan: Threats and Rehabilitation Strategies The Sumatran orangutan is widely considered as the most threatened species of great ape Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust 2006. It is estimated that there are approximately 6,500 individuals remaining in Sumatra (Wich et al, 2008), and the species is listed as Critically Endangered under the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List (Singleton et al, 2008). This is due not only to the small remaining population, but to the fact that the population has declined by over 80% in the last 75 years (3 generations) (Wich et al, 2008). The Sumatran orangutan is endemic to Sumatra (considered a separate species from the Bornean orangutan (Mittermeier et al, 2009)), with its range restricted to a small area of fragmented habitat in the North of the island. Historically, the species had a much larger range across Sumatra, but the majority of the population is now constrained to the province of Aceh (Singleton et al, 2008). This condensed population means that we can expec t the population to show more intense competition within the species for food and resources, causing an increase in mortality over time (Marshall et al, 2009). The orangutan is an arboreal species, it is highly adapted to spend all of its time above the ground, and primarily inhabits lowland tropical forest and peat-swamp forest ecosystems (DWCT, 2006). These traits have left them extremely vulnerable to habitat destruction, the major threat to orangutans in Sumatra. Heavy logging of the orangutans natural habitat means that only less suitable habitat remains for them (Wich et al 2008). In addition, the majority of the orangutan population in Sumatra were found outside of protected areas, and many within potential logging areas (Singleton et al, 2008). It is clear that the Sumatran orangutan is under severe pressure, and many threats need to be addressed in order to attempt to restore the population. Threats Deforestation and fragmentation Both legal and illegal logging are a major threat to the Sumatran orangutan. The species main habitat, primary lowland forest, has been devastated in the last 30 years due to large scale forest conversion to agricultural land and oil palm plantations (Singleton et al, 2008). One study between 1990 and 2000 recorded a 13% loss of orangutan habitat forest (Gaveau et al, 2007). Another study by van Schaik et al (2001) found that during the late 1990s habitat supporting 100 orangutans was lost each year in the Leuser Ecosystem in Sumatra. This habitat loss was largely due to legal logging concessions from the Indonesian government for oil palm conversion (van Schaik et al, 2001). The orangutans habitat of lowland forest has been targeted due to the fact that it is easily and cheaply accessible for logging (Campbell-Smith et al, 2011). The forest is being destroyed in order to provide hardwood to developed nations, providing income to boost Indonesias economy, as well as to clear land for agricultural conversion and expanding human populations (DWCT, 2006). Within the last decade the scale of logging in Sumatra has continued to expand. This was partly due to the surge in demand for timber since the 2004 tsunami (Singleton et al, 2008), as well as a peace agreement in the Aceh province. A moratorium on logging during the conflict meant a lower rate of forest loss, however a peace accord in 2005 led to a lift of the moratorium and re-issuing of logging permits in Aceh (Singleton et al, 2008). In addition, the history of political unrest in the province has greatly impacted past conservation efforts (Marshall et al, 2009). This recorded habitat loss is the main contributor to the species declining population. orangutans are particularly vulnerable due to the fact that they are an arboreal species. They spend the majority of their lives in the canopy to avoid the threat of tigers, meaning the species is restricted to areas untouched by deforestation. However, the spread of human settlements and development of new road systems has caused severe fragmentation of their remaining habitat. In addition, a proposal for the Ladia Galaska road network in Aceh has been put forward, and if allowed will quickly fragment the last remnants of habitat (Singleton et al, 2008). The remaining forest within the orangutans range cannot support its prior ecosystems, and further deforestation and fragmentation could lead to multiple extinctions. Indonesia has converted over 3 million hectares of land to oil palm plantations, with plans to convert a further 4 million (Brown and Jacobson, 2005). However areas of oil palm monoculture only supports 20% of its previous diversity (Marchal and Hill, 2009). Even small scale selective logging can reduce local orangutan densities by as much as 60% (Rao and van Schaik, 1997), which shows how sensitive the species are to the destruction of habitat. The threats to orangutans from deforestation are made greater by the fact that the Indonesian government supports development (orangutan National Action Plan, 2007), and are therefore willing to issue large numbers of logging permits. Furthermore, the decentralisation of forest management in 2001 has aided the rise in forest destruction, as it means that regional land use plans are made without any though for conservation (The Ministry of Forestry, 2009). The increase in human population also increases pressure, as greater resource degradation occurs to meet an ever increasing demand for timber and agricultural land. A paper by Robertson and van Schaik (2001) suggests that ultimate causal factor of deforestation is corruption, as well as feeble compliance with legislation and poor law enforcement. Corrupti on is the most difficult threat to overcome, but law enforcement and compliance need to be improved in order to have a chance of protecting the remaining orangutan population. Other threats As well as being severely threatened by habitat destruction, orangutans are also in high demand for the pet trade across Indonesia. The central demand is for infant orangutans, considered as good pets as they do not reach full size until the age of 7, and are known for their trait of human imitation. Currently around 200-500 infants are taken from the wild for the pet trade each year in Kalimantan (Nijman, 2005). No data is available for the Sumatran orangutan, but demand for pets is high in both Borneo and Sumatra, and the number of infants being removed from the wild is unsustainable. Wild orangutans are also threatened by their conflict with humans, and they are at times killed as pests. They are forced to encroach upon agricultural land as a result of habitat destruction, but are considered pests by farmers and often killed when found raiding crops at forest edges. In a study interviewing farmers in northern Sumatra, 28% of those interviewed feared orangutans. They also on averag e believed orangutans to be the third most frequent, and the fourth most destructive pest (Campbell-Smith et al, 2010). This shows that a high proportion of orangutans are being forced to raid crops due to destruction of habitat and food sources, but also that the human-orangutan conflict may not easily be reconciled as it is largely driven by fear. Finally, the current small nature of the remaining orangutan population means it is highly vulnerable to stochastic events such as natural disasters, random genetic fluctuations and disease outbreak (Caughley, 1994). The species relatively slow reproductive rate (25 years per generation) and the ongoing vulnerability to habitat reduction means it is at constant risk of extinction. Past and current recovery strategies Rehabilitation centres During the 1970s the Indonesian government began to establish reserves for orangutans, which are now seen across Sumatra. The reserves act as rehabilitation centres where orphans are taught how to live in the wild and then returned, but also as sanctuaries for individuals unable to be reintroduced. Individuals found in logging areas, as well as orphans and orangutans confiscated by the forestry department, are moved to these sanctuaries (DWCT, 2006). It is estimates that around 63-97% of intakes by orangutan centres are under 7 years old (Russon, 2009). The orangutans are treated medically until their health is regained, as they are often in bad condition. For example many have gunshot and machete wounds, scars from tight chains, and internal damage, as well as behavioural and psychological damage as a result of prolonged isolation, abuse, and abnormal associations with humans (Russon, 2009). In addition many orangutans arrive carrying human diseases such as Tuberculosis, as well as significantly high parasite loads (Russon, 2009) after living in close proximity with humans. Once treated, the orangutans are taught ecological and social skills, and gradually weaned from human contact in order for them to be able to live independently in the wild once released (Beck et al, 2007). When the rehabilitation centres were initially established, uncertainty over orangutan numbers meant that rehabilitation programmes concentrated on releasing individuals into areas with existing wild populations to supplement those that were too small (Russon, 2009). Between 1973 and 2000, 218 orangutans were released at Bohorok in Gunung Leuser National Park, Sumatra, to supplement the rapidly declining population. The Sumatran orangutan Conservation Programme (SOCP) is one of the orangutan rehabilitation centres in Sumatra, but it also concentrates on other aspects of orangutan conservation. The SOCP rehabilitation centre and quarantine site is in the Medan region, and individuals are released in Bukit Tigapuluh National Park. Over ten years, 190 orangutans have been through quarantine, with 125 individuals released into Bukit Tigapuluh, and 3 wild births by reintroduced females (DWCT, 2006). In addition the programme is helping to improve law enforcement through providing facilities for confiscated or unwanted orangutans. The availability of sanctuaries means that illegally kept individuals are more readily reported (DWCT, 2006). A mobile education unit from SOCP is used as an educational tool to teach conservation and the importance of orangutan tolerance, particularly in human-orangutan conflict areas. This provides a vital part of the orangutan conservation effort, as building understanding within local communities will help to reduce threats. Additionally, the programmes links with the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust means they also have access to the latest research in orangutan medicine, husbandry and captive care (DWCT, 2006). Protected Areas There are many protected areas across Sumatra, however illegal logging still occurs within the majority of them. The Leuser Ecosystem Conservation area, established in 1998, is considered a conservation stronghold for orangutan populations (Singleton et al, 2008). It is a 2.6 million hectare area consisting of two National parks and containing around 5,800 (over 85%) of the remaining Sumatran orangutan population (Mittermeier et al 2009). It is the only conservation area within Sumatra with viable populations of the Sumatran orangutan, Sumatran tiger, Sumatran Rhinoceros and the Sumatran elephant. This shows that the Leuser Ecosystem Conservation area is highly important in the conservation and protection of the Sumatran orangutan. However, the national park is predominantly a mountainous region, which is highly unsuitable for the lowland orangutan species. This means that most of the orangutan population is found outside of park boundaries, leaving them even more vulnerable to habit at destruction. It is estimated that only around 30% of the orangutan population in Sumatra are found within park boundaries (Mittermeier et al, 2009), causing more problems and difficulties for their conservation. Legislation The Sumatran orangutan was listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) in 1975 (DWCT, 2006). This means that no trade is allowed in live orangutans or orangutan products. The ban was put in place due to the expanding pet trade in Indonesia, and by 1980 over 30,000 orangutans had been killed as result of this trade across Sumatra and Borneo (DWCT, 2006). In addition the species has been protected under Indonesian domestic law (Singleton et al, 2008). Act no.5, which was made law in 1990, legally protects the orangutan from hunting throughout its range. The Act also aims to protect environmental support structures and preserve biodiversity in Indonesia. However, a ban on hunting is extremely difficult to enforce, and current law enforcement of legislation appears to be very weak. Foreign support Many foreign non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have invested an interest in the future survival of the Sumatran orangutan. For example, the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust based in Jersey joined the effort to conserve Sumatran orangutans in 1968. Durrell has contributed greatly to the survival of the species, breeding 7 babies in Jersey for the international Sumatran orangutan breeding programme (DWCT, 2006). The trust also helps by sharing information with orangutan rehabilitation centres, as well as sending experts to the field in Sumatra to help in the rehabilitation process. Some governmental support for the protection of the Sumatran orangutan has also been shown. Through the United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (REDD), the Norwegian government pledged US$1 billion to Indonesia to reduce deforestation rates (Butler et al, 2009). Success of species recovery to date The Sumatran orangutan has been listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN since 2000 when it was first categorised (Singleton et al, 2008). The species data was re-examined in both 2007 and 2008, and in both cases it was found to still be Critically Endangered (Singleton et al, 2008). The population in Sumatra has been decreasing since the 1900s, with the most recent decline from 7,300 individuals in 2004 (Singleton et al, 2004), to around 6,500 in 2008 (Wich et al, 2008). It appears that, despite efforts to restore orangutan populations over the last 40 years, the species recovery has been unsuccessful to date. The predominant reason behind the continued decline of orangutan populations is the sustained level of deforestation, allowed by legal logging permits, illegal logging, poor law enforcement and ultimately corruption. Legislation is ineffective and reserves are not sufficiently policed, allowing commercial forestry to continue to occur even within protected areas. The rate o f illegal logging to legal logging is 4:1 (DWCT, 2006), meaning that without drastic improvements in law enforcement orangutans will remain at constant threat of extinction. Furthermore, despite the illegalisation of trade in orangutans, the pet trade for the species is still booming throughout Indonesia. Although the forestry department are responsible for confiscating many illegally owned orangutans for reintroduction, a huge proportion of individuals remain in human possession. The current level of protection for orangutans is not enough to combat the threats to the species. The most successful recovery attempt has been through the rehabilitation centres, but even they have a limited capacity. The rehabilitation process is only able to reintroduce a relatively small number of individuals, with one centre returning 125 orangutans to the wild over a ten years period. Over the same 10 year period only 3 wild births from ex-captive mothers occurred, and a high infant mortality was found at many release sites (Russon, 2009). Several observations of released orangutans at Bohorok release site showed individuals returning ill, underweight or wounded by wild counterparts (Dellatore, 2009). It is clear that there are still some problems with the rehabilitation and reintroduction process, and room to expand projects to a larger scale. However, it is also evident that these projects are the most successful aspect of the species recovery to date. The centres carry out highly important medical and genetic screening of individuals. orangutans are susceptible to human diseases, and the risk of spreading disease is great, so medical screenings help prevent disease from entering wild populations. Genetic screening is also highly valuable, as it helps monitor genetic diversity and maintain a healthy population. Rehabilitation centres also play an important role in orangutan welfare, allowing the confiscation of poorly kept individuals and providing safe places to go (Russon, 2009). In this aspect, they are an important part of the limited law enforcement available. Finally, the centres provide vital infrastructure and logistical support in the translocation of wild orangutans away from deforested areas (Beck et al, 2007). Recommendations for future management practices It is estimated that if the current rate of orangutan decline is sustained, we could see a further 50% loss of the population within ten years (Mittermeier et al, 2009). In order to ensure the Sumatran orangutans future, drastic action needs to be taken. Conservation of the species relies on immediate improvement of forest and wildlife laws, an increase in consideration for biodiversity in land use planning, and greater law enforcement effectiveness. The implementation of patrols to prevent illegal activity is vital as the first step to stopping illegal logging (Mittermeier et al 2009). In order to do this regular funding is required to put operations in place, and a forum for monitoring the enforcement of current legislation needs to be established. It is also important to implement anti-hunting patrols, as even very low hunting levels have strong deleterious effects (1% annual hunting rate sustainable) (Marshall et al, 2009). Patrols will also stem some of the supply to the pet trade, and attempt to reduce levels of illegal logging. In addition it is advised to temporarily halt legal logging and forest conversion, as well as road development plans (Mittermeier et al, 2009) in order to establish a more viable orangutan population. However, it is unlikely that the Indonesian government would halt development plans as it is essential for the countrys economic growth. A final step in the improvement of law enforcement would be the establishment of more patrols to confiscate illegally owned and poorly kept individuals to be taken to rehabilitation centres. This means that it is also vital to ensure the future expansion of rehabilitation centres across Sumatra. It is important to build capacity within current centres, as well as establishing new release sites across the island to restore populations in areas outside the Aceh province. Funding and volunteers would be required to expand the reintroduction projects across Sumatra. The future of orangutans also relies on the provision of protected areas and reserves with strict controls to prevent illegal activity from still occurring. Again, this would involve the supply of regular reserve patrols and stringent regulation. National park perimeters should also be increased to enhance the conservation areas. It is important to include large areas of forest below 1000 metres above sea level within the protected areas (Singleton et al, 2008), as this is the orangutans primary habitat. Habitat restoration is also needed within the protected areas in order to make it suitable for orangutan reintroduction. In addition, the re-establishment of habitat corridors is greatly needed (Robertson and van Schaik, 2001) to improve genetic flow between fragmented populations. Improving habitat connectivity will increase genetic diversity and therefore make the species more adaptable to its constantly changing environment. The conversion of any remaining orangutan habitat to oth er uses should be strictly prohibited immediately, as only a very small fraction remains. In order to do this, alternative livelihoods will need to be provided to many local communities which may have relied on the land. This should be done by employing locals in orangutan conservation projects, helping with rehabilitation, habitat restoration and law enforcement. Not only will this provide an income for communities, it will provide an economic incentive to protect orangutans, and may potentially start to change local opinion of the species. Building tolerance of the species and changing attitudes towards them is an important part of their conservation. It is important to address the human-orangutan conflict, especially as in the future more orangutans are likely to be living in close proximity to humans. In Batang Serangan in Northern Sumatra, a small group of orangutans were found to live in peaceful co-existence with farmers. The landscape is made up of degraded natural forest, s mallholder farms and oil palm monoculture plantations (Campbell-Smith et al, 2011). Although not an ideal habitat for orangutans, the mixed landscape was still suitable for the small group to live. Once tolerance of the species has grown, it would be possible to begin establishing small populations in these mixed agro-forest systems which occur across Sumatra. The ultimate aim is to create a landscape of primary lowland forest within protected areas, joined by corridors through major agricultural land. With the addition of further release sites, a connected habitat and better law enforcement, it is possible to establish viable populations across the island of Sumatra. Conclusion In order to reduce the current threats to the Sumatran orangutan immediate action needs to be taken. The species critically endangered status and its vulnerability to habitat destruction mean it is at great risk of extinction if further protection measures are not put in place. By following some of the recommendations laid out above, and increasing the level of support for orangutan projects, the species may yet have a future.

Offset Printing History

1 History of Printing Presses Printing is a method of transferring an image to surfaces for the purpose of communication. A printing press is a mechanical apparatus for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium. The invention of the printing press is considered as the most influential event in the second millennium revolutionizing the way people learn and communicate. Rubbings from stone inscriptions were an early reproduction method in which images were carved into stone, similar to the gravure process.The substrate, which was a thin strong paper, was moistened to make it soft . A kind of adhesive is placed on the surface of the stone. The paper is placed over the surface of the stone and a stiff brush is used to rub the paper over the stone and into every depression of the stone. Ink is applied over the paper after it was dried. The paper is peeled off from the stone and a reversed image within black ink was revealed. Stone rubbings were used to print books, especially religious texts and historic classics. Drawing materials include charcoal, inksticks, graphite and wax.Seal Printing and the Origin of Letterpress Printing The Chinese also used a method of reproducing images that is similar to our present-day rubber stamp method (Fig. 1:1) called seal printing. Before seal printing was invented, the Chinese used a receipt-like system to transact business. Two ends of a bamboo stick were written in duplicate for a particular business transaction. When the transaction was completed, the bamboo stick was broken and each member would receive a record of the transaction. For nobility, the emperor provided a token of jade.The jade was broken and one half was given to the subject and the other half kept by the emperor. A seal stamp made of clay eventually replaced the tokens. One method of seal stamping was to force an impression into a surface with the seals. The other method was to ink the seal and transfer the wet inked image to a substrate . Presswork and Bindery Processes 1 An early form of seal printing was the use of signet stones. These stones were used in Babylon and other ancient countries as an alternative for signatures and as religious symbols. These stones or devices consisted of seals and stamps for making images on clay.The stone, often located on a ring, was dabbed with pigment or mud and then pressed against a smooth surface to make an impression. Fig. 1:1. Chinese seal and print. Fig. 1:2. Chinese ink stick. Block Printing in China The Chinese developed a method of printing in the fifth century in which a wooden block was used to reproduce images on certain surfaces over and over again. Wooden blocks were made from coniferous wood, honey locust trees, jujube trees, boxwood, and date and pear trees. Each tree had advantages and disadvantages as far as printing was concerned.The coniferous wood trees had a problem of uneven printing because of resin that was impregnated in the wood. If delicate and fine l ine images in illustrations were required, the honey locust tree was used. For text, the soft boxwood was used, while the pear tree provided the best wood to use for various types of images, followed closely by jujube and date trees. Blocks were soaked in water for about a month after they were cut. If the blocks were needed in a hurry, they were boiled, left to dry, and then planed on both sides. Some printers used both sides of the blocks.The printer had to cut away all portions of the block except the image area (Fig. 1:3). All images had to be carved backwards so that when printed on a substrate, the images would appear correctly for reading. The wood carver had to be very skillful in carving text and illustrations backward. These blocks marked the invention of letterpress printing. The non-image areas of the block are below the surface of the form, and the image areas are on the surface of the form. The printing method was simple. Ink was rubbed on the surface of the form with a brush (Fig. 1:3).A sheet of paper was then placed over the form with gentle pressure so it could receive the images . A dry brush was used to press the sheet against the form. It must be noted that the original paper was so thin that usually only one side was printed. Because the paper was very translucent, blank sides of the printed sheets were placed back to back in publications. 2 Presswork and Bindery Processes Fig. 1:3. Chinese wooden block printing. Fig. 1:4. The Diampond Sutra. A color technique was developed during this time. Color separated blocks were carved and printed in register with other color-separated blocks and text as well.This was the first attempt at multicolor printing. An important invention in printing technology occurred during the Song Dynasty. It was the invention of movable-type printing. A commoner by the name of Pi Sheng used movable-type blocks for printing during the Qingli years (1041-1048) of the Northern Song. This invention ushered in an era of movable-type printing and is a significant milestone in the history of printing. This invention soon died in China because it was very complex. The invention soon found its way to Europe in the fifteenth century. Movable TypeAn alternate method of reproduction called movable type was developed in the eleventh century in China. This method was established well after the wooden block method, which came around the fifth century. Movable type consists of individual letters, characters, and symbols creating a language or an alphabet (Fig. 1:5). These elements could be used in the printing of one form, and then be taken apart and used to print other forms. The thousands of different characters in the Chinese language made the use of movable type cumbersome and slow. The Chinese writing system was a pictographic and ideographic method of communication.The Chinese alphabet system consisted of almost forty-thousand characters. Each character represented something in real life such as trees, animals, and pottery. Pi Sheng is given credit for the invention of movable type. He used clay and carved individual characters. The carved letters were put into fire to harden them. A metal frame with a mixture of wax was used as a base for evening out the surface of the type. The typefaces were set close to each other to make up a form of type. The entire block of type was then forced into the waxed metal tray and planed down with a smooth board after the wax was melted down in an open flame.Presswork and Bindery Processes 3 Pi Sheng reasoned that each type or character was to be used over and over again. One advantage of the movable type method is that characters could be deleted or inserted without throwing the entire form away. Fig. 1:5. Chinese movable type. Fig. 1:6. Movable type printed document. The Middle Ages in Europe Before 1450, the majority of books in Europe were produced by the arduous task of manuscript writing and recopying. The few exceptions were books that were printed by the wooden-block method, which was introduced into Europe by the year 1400. This slow, laborious process required skillful workers.Block printing was also used for illustrations in books (Fig. 1:3) and in the printing of playing cards. During this era, a period that saw little or no advancement in the arts or sciences became known as the Dark ages. This period was also marked by a lack of communication. Monks, who worked in monastery rooms called scriptoriums or writeries, produced the majority of books written during the Dark Ages. The religious scribes were responsible for the recording of history and the production of books, as well as most other intellectual activity during this period. The bookmaking trade was highly specialized.Books were elaborately decorated with colored initials, and they often displayed special gems, precious stones, and gold on their covers. Books were scarce and the average person could not afford them. In addition, most people could not read or write in Europe during this era. During the Dark Ages, books were highly illustrated, since this facilitated communication. Many illustrations were featured in religious books as well as on playing cards. These illustrations were engraved in wood or metal, inked, and impressed on the sheet, a process that required great skill. There is proof 4 Presswork and Bindery Processes hat blocks were exchanged between printers. Several illustrations appeared in different publications. The same images were often used to illustrate different subjects. Type and illustrations at first were printed in two separate impressions because they were produced at different heights. Over time, type and illustrations were produced at the same height. The Renaissance era, a period that was marked by an intellectual awakening, began around the thirteenth century. People began to study the sciences and the arts and to explore their environment. Many discoveries were being made, and people wanted to have kn owledge of new ideas.Fig. 1:7. Statue of Gutenberg. Fig. 1:8. Gutenberg style screw press. Fig. 1:9. The Gutenberg Bible. The Gutenberg Era (1397-1468) During the Renaissance, people experimented with methods for the faster reproduction of books. One result of these experiments was the successful use of movable cast type and a press in printing by Johannes Gutenberg (Fig. 1:7). The invention was revolutionary for several reasons. European languages, in contrast to those of Asia, were alphabetic. They consisted of relatively few characters, such as the twenty-six letters of English.This small number of different characters made the use of individualcharacter types (movable type) practical. Casting each character in quantity from a mold and using a press for printing permitted very fast reproduction of written materials. Through experiments and innovations, Gutenberg perfected the printing process before the famous printing of the bible. Each page printed had thirtysix lines per page. Later the lines per page increased to forty-two. Because of this invention, printing soon spread rapidly throughout Europe. Books became plentiful because they could be printed more quickly.Many persons could now afford books, and printing fulfilled the demand. Intellectual activity and learning began anew. Because of the impact of books on the culture of Europe at this time, printing became recognized as the art that preserves all the arts. The following reasons help to further explain the importance of the invention of movable type: 1. With movable type, a greater degree of accuracy was possible. 2. The supply of books increased greatly. Over twenty thousand volumes for one book could be produced in one year. Presswork and Bindery Processes 5 3. Because books were plentiful, they were affordable.They became readily accessible among all classes of people. 4. The invention of printing stimulated the desire for learning. The invention of printing, more than any other invention, was credited with bringing Europe out of the Dark Ages. 5. A standard alphabet was in place. Despite many languages on the European continent, thousands could share from the same invention. Presses were set up in Holland, France, England, and other European nations. 6. Gutenberg invented a press (Fig. 1:8) fashioned from a wine press. Ink pads, which were made of leather stuffed with wool or horsehair, were used to apply ink to the form. . The ink that Gutenberg used was have been made from linseed oils and lampblack. Later it was discovered that traces of lead, titanium, and copper were also used. Gutenberg could not use the India ink produced in China, because it did not print well from metal types. 8. Gutenberg’s own contribution was a punch and mold system for producing metal types. This method created the mass distribution of movable types for printing. Despite the accomplishments of Gutenberg and other European printers, we cannot forget the Chinese influences on their inve ntions.These inventions eventually made their way to Europe via explorers, who came back with startling discoveries, including paper, playing cards, movable type, block printing, image prints, and paper money. The printing trade was not profitable. Gutenberg himself did not become rich from his innovations and contribution to the world. The problem lay in the marketing of books in Europe during that time. Although the demand for books and other printed matter was great, methods to market and transport books needed to be developed. Early European Printers (Graphic Arts Procedures) 460 Strasburg, Germany †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Johann Mentelin 1464 Strasburg, Germany †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Heinrich Eggestein 1465 Subiaco, Italy †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Conrad Sweynhem 1467 Rome, Italy. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Ulrich Han 1468 Basel, Switzerland †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Berthold Rappel 1469 Venice, Italy †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Johann of Speyer 1470 Venice, Italy . †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Nicholas Jenson 1470 Paris, France. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Michael Fibiger 1473 Nuremberg, Germany †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Anthony Koberger 1473 Utrecht, Netherlands †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Gerardus Leempt 1473 Lyons, France †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ .Guillaume Leroy 1494 Venice, Italy †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Aldus Manutius 1497 Paris, France †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Henri Estienne 6 Presswork and Bindery Processes Fifteenth Century PrintingPrinting was a very important invention during the Renaissance era. The key to the invention of printing lies in the manufacturing of movable type. This technology had to be perfected in order for the printing process to be developed. A few inventors worked on the development of movable type. A punch of a particular type style and size had to be produced. This punch was used i n making an impression of the typeface in a mold. The mold was made from copper, which is soft enough to receive the impression from a steel punch, but durable enough to withstand the heat from the molten metal that was poured into it to produce the type.The punch itself had a reversed character, which was reversed into the matrix as a positive recessed character. A wrong reading character was produced from the casting of molten metal in the mold. The person that produced the punch was often the designer of the typeface. Fig. 1:10. Fifteenth century typesetting and type casting (Cary Collection). The term unjustified matrix or strike was referred to as matrix that was produced by depressing the punch within the copper. The term matrix is used after the copper with its impression is fitted within the mold for casting (Fig. 1:10).The goal in the casting of type was to produce type of equal height. This was necessary in order for printers to obtain an even impression with few difficult ies. The matrix and its fitting within the mold were the key factor in the controlling of the type height. This was accomplished by using the same mold throughout the manufacturing of a font. In addition to the type height, the paralleling or the side-by-side placement of the type was also important. If type were not produced on a square body, then it would not stand straight and would slant when locked together with other characters. Presswork and Bindery Processes 7Molds were made up of two parts and screwed together in a parallel adjustment. In this way the mold could accommodate matrix of varying size. During the hand casting process, a worker could face shrinking of type, uneven filling of the molten metal in the mold, and injury from the heat of the molten metal. The process was slow, but the type could be used for thousands of jobs. By the mid-nineteenth century, automatic methods replaced the manual methods of typecasting. Workflow in the Fifteenth Century The workflow in th e fifteenth century included composition, imposition, printing, and binding.In the composition stage, once the text was decided on to print, then the volume of copy was determined. Lines per page as well as the total number of pages for the job were determined. The printer would then know how much paper was needed for the job. The compositor set the type for the job using a composing stick. Every time the stick was filled, the lines were transferred to a metal tray called a galley. Pages were formed in the galley. Pages in the fifteenth century were arranged on large stones in printer spreads. Pages were enclosed by wooden pieces, which are called furniture.A metal frame called a chase surrounds all pages and furniture. To secure the form, locks or quoins were used. One page with no printing on the other side was called a broadside. Two pages were called a folio; four pages, a quarto; and eight pages, an octavo. A pressman pulled a proof sheet from the imposed form (Fig. 1:11). The proof was given over to a corrector and a reader. The reader read the original copy as the corrector trailed along on the proof sheet to ensure that the text was the same. This process continued until all corrections were found and changed.Because of these continuous changes, no single copy of an early printed book is identical to any other. Fig. 1:11. Fifteenth century printing (Cary Collection). Paper was prepared the day before the actual press run. Piles of sheets each were set out, wetted, and allowed to stand overnight. This was necessary because the common screw presses of the time did not have enough power in them to force dry paper to evenly take the ink. 8 Presswork and Bindery Processes Two pressmen were involved in the printing process. One applied ink to the type, and the other pulled the bar and worked the paper.Pulling the bar required a lot of energy and printers would take turns in this process. Ink balls were used to applied ink to the form. These ink balls were ma de of leather pads, mounted in wooden cups and handles, and stuffed with wool or horsehair; they were then covered with a sheepskin pelt. Ink balls were inked, and ink was placed over the form in a rocking motion. A sheet of paper was then laid on the tympan. The tympan, paper, and frisket were folded together onto the form. The pressman then pulled the bar toward himself. This caused the turning of the screw, drawing the platen down and forcing the paper against the inked form.It sometimes took two pulls to print one form. The carriage was cranked out from under the platen. The tympan and frisket were raised, and the paper was removed. Sheets of paper were printed on the reverse side immediately while the sheet was still damp. Printing on both sides of the sheet is called perfecting. After the job was printed, the compositor cleaned the ink off the forms, unlocked the type, and distributed the type into the cases. Printed sheets were sent to a drying room and hung up in sets to dry . They were then piled into heaps on a long table and collated by signatures.Next they were folded once, pressed, and baled for delivery or storage. Fig. 1:12. Adams power platen press. Fig. 1:12a Early inking apparatus. Evolution of inking rollers. Fig. 1:13. Ink balls. Fig. 1:14. Ink brayer. Fig. 1:15. Inking rollers. Presswork and Bindery Processes 9 The Power Platen Press In 1830, Isaac Adams of Boston invented a press, which combined the advantages of the hand press and a press that could print larger forms. The platen on this press was stationary with the bed of the press rising to make contact with the platen to print.The form would be inked when the bed of the press returned to its lowest position. At this point the inking rollers would transfer ink over the printing form. A frisket was used to carry the sheet to the printing position (Fig. 1:12). The average speed of these presses was around 800 sheets per hour. Inking rollers evolved from a hand frame with two handles auto matically inking rollers, to the use of vibrating rollers to drive the rollers in the unit. An earlier method of inking employed a â€Å"roller boy† or an â€Å"assistant pressman†. Soon the inking apparatus (See Fig. :12a) was run by power, which was signaled by the action of the bed moving up and down. The Job Presses Job work consist of smaller work such as tickets, circulars, business cards and bills. This type of work became problematic for hand-press printing where the demand was in place for smaller, faster and more accessible presses. One of the first job presses was called the Adams press. This press did not meet the qualifications that were needed to run smaller job work. S. P. Ruggles of Boston introduced a series of presses in 1830. They were known as â€Å"card presses†.The card press was manufactured with a flat side on the side of a cylinder supported between side frames. A second flat surface known as the â€Å"platen† was directly across from the bed of the press. Rollers on the press, which traveled around the cylinder, did the inking. The largest press sheet on the press could accommodate a press sheet of 6† X 9†. Other notable presses include: The Albion Press of 1835 (Fig. 1:19), The Paragon Press of 1829 (Fig. 1:17), the Stanhope Press of 1816 (Fig. 1:20) and the Chandler and Price Platen Press of the early 1900s (Fig. 1:18). Harrison T. Chandler and William H.Price founded Chandler and Price Company in 1881 in Cleveland, Ohio. Chandler and Price manufactured machinery for printers including hand-fed platen jobbing presses, paper cutters, book presses, and assorted equipment. Fig. 1:16. Clymer-Columbian Press. Fig. 1:17. Paragon Press. 10 Presswork and Bindery Processes Fig. 1:18. Chandeler & Price Press. Fig. 1:19. Albion Press. Fig. 1:20. Stanhope Press. Many job presses came out with several improvements over the years. These improvements included: †¢ Larger press sheet sizes. †¢ Faster press speeds. †¢ Better synchronization of the bed and the platen. Improvement in the inking roller application. †¢ Better impression devices. †¢ Automatic feeding and delivery. The newspapers were printed on wooden hand presses operated by levers and screws. It was not until around 1816 that the new iron Columbian press came into general use. The Columbian press (Fig. 1:16), invented by George Clymer of Philadelphia, had, instead of a screw, a series of compound levers that multiplied the pull of the operator. All hand presses were slow. The forms had to be laid by hand and the inking of the form was notably poor and of uneven quality. Web Offset DevelopmentWith the nineteenth century came the addition of the steam-powered press, the cylinder press and the web press. An American inventor by the name of William A. Bullock (Fig. 1:32), patented the web press. The web press printed from rolls of paper rather than from individual sheets. This was followed by another Ame rican invention, the continuous roll press, devised by Richard M. Hoe. This device sped up the production of newspapers to around 18,000 newspapers an hour. In 1871 Hoe (Fig. 1:30) and company turned their attention to constructing a press that would feed a continuous roll of paper and print on both sides of the fed paper.They petitioned ink manufacturers for the development of fast drying inks. Paper manufacturers were asked to produce rolls of paper with Presswork and Bindery Processes 11 Fig. 1:21. William Bullock Web Press. Fig. 1:22. Web Perfecting Newspaper Press. Fig. 1:23. Turn bars Assembly on a Web Press. 12 Presswork and Bindery Processes Fig. 1:24. Web Press Infeed Section. uniform strength. But there were other problems that needed to be solved including the severing of sheets after printing and an accurate delivery of papers. Stephen D. Tucker, who was an employee of Hoe and Company, patented the gathering and delivery mechanism.This mechanism produced flat rapid deliv ery of printed sections. The web presses operated at speeds as fast as 18,000 impressions per hour. This finishing device was necessary for the production of â€Å"fold ready† products for immediate delivery by carrier or mail. The finishing steps were done â€Å"inline† or on the same piece of equipment. Initially equipment similar to the traditional folding machine was used. Conveyor belts would carry the sheet to right angle folding units, which were made up of folding rollers until the desired folded format was completed. Then in 1875 Stephen D.Tucker patented a rotating folding cylinder. This device folded the papers as fast as they were printed approaching speeds of 15,000 per hour. Paper enters from two rolls into two portions of the press. The web is printed (perfected) on both sides of the sheet and traveled towards the rotating folded cylinder. The sheets entered a triangular former, which folds the sheets at a predetermined place on center of the sheets. The sheets were then taken over a second cylinder, which gave it another fold. A knife then severed the sheet separating it from the web.The folded section traveled down a conveyor belt to be manually removed, wrapped and shipped Cylinder Press Invention William Nicholson received a patent for an idea for press in 1790 in which a form is to be placed on a cylinder over a flat bed. The substrate is fed between the bed and the impression cylinder to receive an image. The application of ink was done with rollers on this press. The rollers was composed of cloth covered with leather. Nicholson's envision for this press was far ahead of his time. Nicholson did not have a method for producing curved letterpress plates to fit around a cylinder.The securing of the plate for printing was another mystery at that time that would have to be figured out. In 1814, Frederick Koenig invented the first automatic press (Fig. 1:25). Frederick Koenig was a clock maker by trade. Koenig’s first press was actually patented in 1810. The entire bed moved laterally, and the form received ink from a set of inking rollers placed at one end of the press. The key to the automation of this press was the metal gripper finger, which in essence replaced human fingers for providing sheets to the press. Before this time, presses had been fed by hand.The automatic press was powered by steam and was used in printing the Times of London. It printed approximately 800 sheets per hour, an amazing feat in the 19th century and adequate for the population of that time. Thomas Bensley, a printer and Andrew Bauer a mechanic, assisted Koenig. They invented a press with a bed that moved laterally with the form and an impression cylinder that pressed the wet inked image on the substrate. The impression nip, or the area that prints at any given time, is very small on a cylinder press, resulting in a much better image transferred to the substrate.More importantly, this invention prevented many injuries and d amage to the press because operators were not in close contact with the moving parts on the press. Presswork and Bindery Processes 13 Fig. 1:25. Koenig’s cylinder press. Fig. 1:26 Hoe’s cylinder press. Fig. 1:27. Battery of cylinder presses. 14 Presswork and Bindery Processes Fig. 1:28 Advertisement of a cylinder press. Richard Hoe and the Rotary Press Richard Hoe (Fig. 1-30) was born in New York City. He went to work for his father, who manufactured printing presses. His father experimented with cylinder presses until his retirement in 1830.Richard carried on this work after his father retired in 1830. He invented the single cylinder press, which was capable of printing 200 copies per hour. Hoe also introduced the double cylinder press in 1844, known today as the rotary press. One cylinder carried the type to be printed while the other cylinder carried the paper and provided printing pressure so that the image could be transferred to the substrate. Rotary presses requ ires curve metal letterpress plates. The difficulty of making these curved plates slowed the acceptance and growth of rotary presses.Curved stereotype plates were accepted and used by 1870. The rotary press became the press of choice for newspaper reproduction, business forms, catalogues and magazines. A flying splicer was introduced for the continuous printing of publications without the need of stopping the press. This device changed the rolls by attaching a new roll to and expired roll. Hoe also invented an additional press in 1847 (Fig. 1-30), which featured a type form and four cylinders for carrying the sheets through the press. It is interesting to note that a boy, who fed sheets to the cylinder, also attended each cylinder.This press produces prints at the rate of 8,000 sheets per hour. Hoe is also credited with the invention of a web perfecting press. This press feeds from rolls of paper and is printed on both sides of the sheet. The presses were powered for the most part b y steam. Electric power took over in the nineteenth century as the main power source for presses. Presswork and Bindery Processes 15 Fig. 1:30 Richard Hoe (left) and his six rotary press (above). Fig. 1:31. Richard Hoe web press. Fig. 1:32. William Bullock. 16 Presswork and Bindery Processes Fig. 1:33. William Bullock’s rotary press.

Essay on The Global Economy and the Stages of Recovery

The global economy and the stages of recovery: As is known, there has been a decline in global GPD growth rates during the last two years due to the global financial crisis which began in August 2007; it is considered one of the most serious crises experienced by the global economy since World War II. According to the latest update to the World Economic Outlook by the International Monetary Fund (January 26, 2010), global GDP growth fell from 5% p.a. in 2007 to 3.2% in 2008, dropping to -.08% by 2009. According to the report, the world economy has begun to expand again, and there have been improvements in financial conditions. It is a significant improvement, but it will still take time to return to where it was in the past.†¦show more content†¦As can be seen in the capital markets indexes, the indicators fell sharply throughout the world without exception. This decline led to a loss of confidence among investors. 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As shownRead MoreImpact Of The Asian Financial Crisis Of 1997 On The Region s Development1704 Words   |  7 Pagesthe crisis, what countries where mainly affected, how economies managed to recover, as well as using Rostows five stages of economic growth to analyze the stage of development the region had reached both pre and post crisis. What must be considered through-out the essay is that despite looking at the region as a whole, the impact that the crisis had on each individual economy in the region varied. When taking into account Rostow’s Five stages of economic growth theory, it can be argued that pre-crisisRead MoreSimplified Chinese English German Traditional Chinese Essay1707 Words   |  7 Pagesrating agencies downgraded Greece s sovereign rating, which the Greek sovereign debt crisis spread to the whole of Europe .2012 In January, Standard Poor s downgraded the credit ratings of nine countries in the euro area, including France, The global economic situation is more severe debt crisis may further escalation of the European Union as China s largest trading partner, largest export market, the largest source of technology import, and the second largest import market, study the EuropeanRead MoreUnion Budget Review1366 Words   |  6 PagesN.S Roll No: 8, SIES EMBA 2012 CONTENTS Overview of Indian Economy Approach to Budget Key Attributes of 2012-2013 Budget Challenges Going Forward OVER VIEW OF INDIAN ECONOMY The Indian economy had left behind the low-growth track of the early 1980s, following the bold economic reforms initiated in 1991-93. India began to appear as a significant player in the global economy. India’s exports began to climb, its foreign exchange reserves, which for decades